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@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ Most localization approaches differ mainly in how the transition and evaluation
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The system's dynamics describe a pedestrian's potential movement within the building.
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This can be formulated as the question \emph{``Given the pedestrian's current position and heading are known, where could he be after a certain amount of time?''}.
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Obviously, the answer to this question depends on the pedestrian's walking behavior, any nearby architecture and thus the building's floorplan.
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Obviously, the answer to this question depends on the pedestrian's walking behavior, any nearby architecture and thus the building's floor plan.
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Assuming the pedestrian to walk almost straight towards his current heading with a known, constant walking speed, the most basic form of state transition simply rejects all movements, where the line-of-sight between current position and potential destination is blocked by an obstacle \cite{Woodman08-PLF, Blanchart09}.
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@@ -30,14 +30,14 @@ The intersection-test can be costly, depending on the number of used particles a
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Furthermore, it is limited mainly to 2D transitions within the plane.
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Smooth 3D transitions, like walking stairs, would require much more complex intersection tests \cite{Afyouni2012}.
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To overcome both limitations, the building's floorplan can be used to derive a graph-based structure, like voronoi diagrams or fixed-distance grids, moving all costly intersection tests into a one-time offline phase \cite{Ebner-16, Hilsenbeck2014}.
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To overcome both limitations, the building's floor plan can be used to derive a graph-based structure, like voronoi diagrams or fixed-distance grids, moving all costly intersection tests into a one-time offline phase \cite{Ebner-16, Hilsenbeck2014}.
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Hereafter, graph-based random walks along the created data-structure can be used as a fast transition approximation.
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Smooth transitions in 3D space can be achieved by generating nodes and edges along stairs and elevators.
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Furthermore, the nodes can be used to store additional information, like their distance towards a pedestrian's desired destination.
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Such information can be included during the transitions step, \eg{} increasing the likelihood of all potential movements that approach this destination \cite{Ebner-16}.
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However, the graph-based approach also imposes some potential issues. When using a gridded graph, the spacing between adjacent
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nodes directly represents the transition's accuracy. Likewise, the amount of required memory to represent the floorplan
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nodes directly represents the transition's accuracy. Likewise, the amount of required memory to represent the floor plan
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scales about quadratically with this spacing. Even though nodes/edges are only created for actually walkable areas (like a sparse cube),
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large buildings require millions of nodes and might not fit into memory at once.
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Furthermore, (large) outdoor regions between adjacent buildings require unnecessarily large amounts
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@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ they usually suffer from reduced accuracy for large open spaces, as many impleme
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We therefore present a novel technique based on continuous walks along a navigation mesh.
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Like the graph, the mesh, consisting of triangles sharing adjacent edges,
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is created once during an offline phase, based on the building's 3D floorplan.
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is created once during an offline phase, based on the building's 3D floor plan.
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Using large triangles reduces the memory footprint dramatically (a few megabytes for large buildings)
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while still increasing the quality (triangle-edges directly adhere to architectural-edges) and allows
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for truly continuous transitions along the surface spanned by all triangles.
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@@ -60,12 +60,12 @@ During a one-time offline-phase, a multitude of reference measurements are condu
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During the online-phase the pedestrian's location is then inferred by comparing those prior measurements against live readings.
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Based on this pioneering work, many further improvements where made within this field of research \cite{PropagationModelling, ProbabilisticWlan, meng11}.
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However, despite a very high accuracy up to \SI{1}{\meter}, classic fingerprinting approaches suffer from tremendous setup- and maintenance times.
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\add{For this reason, some alternative approaches were presented to speed up the offline phase.
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\add{For this reason, some alternative approaches were presented to speed up the offline-phase.
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In \cite{Guimaraes16} the positions of recorded references are interpolated between the start and end of some reference path, based on the pedestrians gait cycle.
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Unrecorded positions are then interpolated using the flood fill algorithm.
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Unrecorded positions are then obtained using the flood fill algorithm.
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However, for old buildings with many nooks and crannies this might cause problems as the RSSI can differ highly within a few meter, especially in the entrance area of thick-walled rooms.
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This could open the need for more advanced map interpolation methods or a higher number and density of reference paths to walk.
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Another often considered alternative is using robots instead of human workforce \cite{he2016wi, yeh2009indoor}}, still this seems not to be a valid option for old buildings with limited accessibility due to uneven grounds and small stairs.
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Another often considered alternative is using robots instead of human workforce \cite{he2016wi, yeh2009indoor}}, still this seems not to be a valid option for old buildings with limited accessibility for robots due to uneven grounds and small stairs.
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%wifi, signal strength
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Signal strength prediction models are a well-established field of research to determine signal strengths for arbitrary locations by using an estimation model instead of real measurements.
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